Sunday, April 12, 2020
THE RISE OF NATIONALISM IN EUROPE
HISTORY-X CHAPTER 1
THE RISE OF NATIONALISM IN EUROPE
(LESSON NOTES)
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v NATIONALISM
Ø A feeling of oneness with the society or the state, love and devotion for the motherland is known as nationalism. It started in 19 the century.
v NATION STATE
Ø A state that establishes itself as a separate political and geographical entity and functions as sovereign territorial unit was called as nation state. This concept emerged in 19th century in Europe as a result of the growth of nationalism.
v MODERN STATE
Ø A state in which sovereignty is exercised by a centralized power over a specific territory and population.
v FREDERIC SORRIEU AND DEMOCRATIC AND SOCIAL REPUBLICS
Ø He was a French artist famous for prints prepared in 1848 that visualized the dream of a world. It was known as Democratic and Social Republics. Its features were as follows-
§ In this painting Frederic Sorrieu depicted, peoples of Europe and America marching in a long train and offering homage to the statue of Liberty.
§ Liberty was personified by female figure with a torch of Enlightenment she bears in one hand and the Charter of the Rights of Man in the other.
§ The symbols of absolutist institutions spread all over.
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| DEMOCRATIC AND SOCIAL REPUBLICS |
§ In Sorrieu’s utopian vision, the peoples of the world are identified through their flags and national costume.
§ Leading countries were are the United States and Switzerland, which by this time were already nation-states.
§ From the heavens above, Christ, saints and angels were happy to see all.
v ABSOLUTIST GOVERNMENT
Ø A system of government where all the powers are vested in a single person or body. It is a monarchical form of government in which the ruler is the absolute authority and is not answerable to anybody.
v FRENCH REVOLUTION (1789)
Ø French revolution was occurred in 1789. led to the transfer of sovereignty from the monarchy. It marks the beginning of nationalism. These features showed that creation of nationalism.
§ France was under absolute monarchy in 1789.
§ The Revolution transferred the sovereignty from the monarch to the French people.
§ Ideas of La patrie (the fatherhood) and Le citoyen (the citizen) adopted.
§ New French Flag, the tricolour, adopted replacing the royal standard.
§ Estates General elected by citizens and renamed the National Assembly.
§ A centralized political system established.
§ Internal custom dues abolished.
§ Uniform weights and measures adopted.
§ French became the language of the nation.
v SPREAD OF NATIONALISM
Ø The revolutionaries declared that it was the mission to liberate the peoples of Europe from despotism
Ø French armies moved into different cities like Holland, Belgium, Switzerland and Italy to liberate the people.
Ø Students and other members of educated middle classes began setting up Jacobin clubs.
v NAPOLEON (1769-1821)
Ø He Ruled over France from 1799 to 1815. He assumed absolute powers in 1799 by becoming the First Consul. He destroyed the democracy but have taken many steps to developed nationalism that were known as civil code
v CIVIL CODE/NAPOLEONIC CODE (1804)
Ø Established equality before law.
Ø Abolished all privileges based on birth.
Ø Granted the right to property to French citizens.
Ø Simplified administrative divisions.
Ø Abolished feudal system and freed peasants from serfdom.
Ø Removed restrictions on guilds in towns.
Ø Improved transport and communication.
v OPPOSITION OF NEPOLEON
Ø Though initially French armies were welcomed but continuous Militarily operations of Napoleon proved to be an oppressor for the people of the conquered territories.
Ø Taxation and censorship were imposed.
Ø Military services were made mandatory.
Ø So the people go against to Nepoleon and finally he was defeated in the battle of waterloo (1815).
v EUROPE IN THE MID-18TH CENTURY
Ø Europeans never saw themselves as sharing a common identity or culture.They were very diverse.For eample-The Habsburg Empire of Austria
Ø The Habsburg Empire of Austria–
§ It was a patchwork of many different regions and peoples.
§ It included the Alpine regions– the Tyrol, Austria and the Sudetenland – as well as Bohemia, where the aristocracy was predominantly German-speaking.
§ It also included the Italian-speaking provinces of Lombardy and Venetia.
§ They used different languages as Magyar, polish, French, Italian and German and variety of dialects.
§ So it was very difficult to promote a sense of political unity in that time.
v SOCIETY OF EUROPE
Ø In Europe society were mainly in two groups
Ø ARISTOCRACY
§ They were very rich and have occupied most of land of Europe.
§ They were less in number, but dominated in Europe, both socially and politically.
§ They spoke French which was considered the language of the high society.
§ Their families were connected through marriage.
§ They favored the conservatism.
Ø PEASANTRY
§ They were tenants and small land owners who worked as serfs.
§ They cultivated the lands of the aristocratic lords.
§ The growth of trade and industrial production facilitated the growth of towns and rise of a commercial class of traders.
§ So they an educated, liberal middle class emerged and popularized nationalism and stood for the abolition of aristocracy and became the supporter of liberalism.
v POLITICAL PHILOSPHY IN EUROPE
v LIBERALISM
Ø The term ‘liberalism’ derives from the Latin root liber, meaning free. For the new middle classes liberalism have different meaning in politically, socially and economically.
Ø POLITICALLY
§ It emphasised on the concept of government by consent.
§ Liberalism had stood for the end of autocracy and clerical privileges,
§ It emphasized on the representative government through parliament. Nineteenth-century
Ø SOICALLY
§ Liberalism stood for equality before law.
§ They also focused on the inviolability of private property.
§ They demanded the right to suffrage or voting rights for all persons.
Ø ECONOMICALLY
§ In economic sphere liberalism stood for the freedom of market.
§ Abolition of state-imposed restrictions on the movement of goods and capital.
§ To reduce the number of currency and equal measurement and weigh.
v ZOLLVEREIN
Ø A customs union formed in 1834 at the initiative of Prussia to abolished the tariff barriers and reduced the number of currencies to two from over thirty was known as Zollverein.
v CONSERVATISM
Ø It was a political philosophy that stressed the importance of tradition, established institutions the monarchy, the church, social hierarchies and family and customs, and preferred gradual development to quick change. There features were as follows-
Ø They were autocratic.
Ø They were intolerant to criticism and dissent.
Ø To adopt the censorship of press for curbing the liberal ideals
Ø Discouraged any questions that challenged their legitimacy
v CONGRESS OF VIENNA (1815)
Ø It was held in 1815 at Vienna by Britain, Russia, Prussia and Austria for settlement for Europe and restoring the monarchies that were overthrown by Napoleon for creation of a new conservative order.It was held in Vienna under the leadership of Austrian Chancellor Duke Metternich. The salient features of the treaty were as follows:
§ The Bourbon dynasty restored to power in France.
§ France was disposed of its conquered territories.
§ Kingdom of Netherlands, which included Belgium, was set up in the North and Genoa was set up in the South for preventing French expansion in future.
§ Prussia was given new territories, including a portion of Saxony.
§ Austria got control over Northern Italy.
§ Russia got Poland.
§ Napoleon‟s confederation of 39 states was not changed.
v THE REVOLUTIONARIES
Ø Upholders of the idea of liberalism and against the conservative regimes of the 19th century. Many secret societies were formed whose main aims were:
§ Training the revolutionaries and spreading their ideas throughout Europe.
§ Opposing monarchical governments established after the Vienna Congress of 1815.
§ Fighting for liberty and freedom from autocratic rule.
§ Emphasizing the idea of creation of nation states.
v GIUSEPPE MAZZINI
Ø Giuseppe Mazzini, born in Genoa in 1807, was a famous revolutionary. He became a member of the secret society of the Carbonari.
Ø He was sent into exile in 1831 for attempting a revolution in Liguria.
Ø Mazzini believed that god had intended nations to be the natural units of mankind.
Ø He was the founder of Young Italy at Marseilles and Young Europe at Berne, the two secret societies
Ø Metternich described him as ‘The most dangerous enemy of our social order’.
v THE AGE OF REVOLUTIONS (1830-1848)
Ø The consolidation of power by the conservative regime made liberalism and nationalism associated with revolution in many regions of Europe.
Ø Italian and German states, the provinces of the Ottoman Empire, Ireland and Poland experienced such revolutions.
Ø The revolutionaries comprised professors, school teachers, clerks and members of the commercial middle class.
v JULY REVOLUTION, FRANCE (1830)
Ø The Bourbon Kings, which was restored after the Vienna Congress of 1815 was overthrown by liberal revolutionaries.
Ø Louis Philippe was installed as a constitutional monarch.
Ø Belgium broke away from the United Kingdom of Netherlands.
Ø Metternich once remarked ‘When France sneezes,’, ‘the rest of Europe catches cold.’
Ø So after that the revolution started in different part of the Europe.
v GREEK REVOLUTION (1830)
Ø Greece was part of the Ottoman Empire since 15th century.
Ø As the growth of nationalism started in Europe Greek‟s struggle for independence from the Ottoman rule in 1821.
Ø It was support from West European countries.
Ø Poets and artists, who were inspired by the ancient Greek culture and literature, also supported the revolution. E.g., Lord Byron, the famous English Poet.
Ø Finally in 1832 the Treaty of Constantinople recognized Greece as an independent nation.
v ROMANTICISM (1830’s)
Ø A cultural movement that rejected science and reason and introduced heart and emotions was known as romanticism.
Ø The concern of the romantics was to create a sense of shared collective heritage and a common cultural past for arousing nationalism.
Ø German philosopher and romanticist Johann Gottfried Herder (1744-1803) believed that true German culture can be discovered only among common people (das volk) through their practice of flock traditions.
Ø It emphasized on vernacular languages and folklore for conveying their ideas to illiterate masses.
Ø Culture with art and poetry, stories and music played a major role in the shaping and expression of nationalistic feelings and nation.
v ECONOMIC CONDITION OF EUROPE AFTER 1830
Ø Great economic hardships were experienced in Europe.
Ø The ratio of the rise of population was larger than that of employment generation.
Ø Migration of rural population to cities led to overcrowded slums.
Ø Small producers in towns (especially textile producing industries) were often ousted by the import of cheap machine-made goods from England.
Ø Rise in food prices or a year of bad harvest left the country poorer.
v REVOLUTION IN FRANCE -1848,
Ø Widespread food shortages and widespread unemployment experienced in Paris.
Ø Barricades were made and Louis Philippe was forced to flee.
Ø National Assembly proclaimed a Republic.
Ø Suffrage to all males above 21 was granted.
Ø The right to work was guaranteed.
Ø National workshops for providing employment were set up.
v SILESIA REVOLT-1845,
Ø Weavers revolted against contractors for the drastic reduction in their payments.
Ø This revolution received scorns and threats alternately and resulted in the death of eleven weavers.
v THE REVOLUTION IN GERMANY-1848
Ø This revolution was led by the educated middle classes.
Ø Large number of political associations whose members were professionals, businessmen and prosperous artisans decided to vote for an all-German National Assembly in Frankfurt.
Ø 831 elected representatives marched to take their places in the Frankfurt Parliament on 18th May 1848.
Ø They drafted a Constitution for a German nation based on constitutional monarchy.
Ø But their demands were rejected by the Prussian King Friedrich Wilhelm IV as he opposed the elected assembly along with the other monarchs.
Ø Finally, troops forcibly disbanded the assembly.
v LIBERAL MOVEMENT AND WOMEN RIGHTS
Ø In spite of all these efforts by the women, they still were only allowed to observe the functioning of the Frankfurt parliament.
Ø Women opposed this by founding newspapers, forming political associations and organizing public meetings and organizations.
Ø They were denied the right to vote.
v RESULTS OF LIBERAL MOVEMENT
Ø Though liberal movements were crushed by the powerful conservative forces. However, some changes were occurred.
Ø Monarchs realized the importance of granting concessions to the liberal nationalist revolutionaries for preventing unrest in the society.
Ø Serfdom and bonded labour were abolished both in Habsburg dominions and in Russia.
Ø Hungarians were granted more autonomy in 1867.
v UNIFICATION OF GERMANY (1866-1871)
Ø In 1848, middle-class Germans tried to unite the different regions of the German confederation into a nation state under an elected parliament.
Ø But it was repressed by the combined forces of the monarchy and the military and were supported by the landowners (“Junkers”).
Ø After that Prussia took over the leadership of the movement for national unification.
Ø Otto Von Bismark, chief minister of Prussia, was the architect of the leading role of Prussia in the process of nation-building.
Ø Prussia emerged victorious after fighting three wars over seven years against the combined forces of Austria, Denmark and France and the process of unification of Germany was completed.
Ø Finally, on 18th January 1871 the new German empire headed by the German Emperor Kaiser William I was declared in the Hall of Mirrors in the Palace of Versailles.
Ø The New German Empire focused on modernizing the currency, banking, legal and judicial systems.
v UNIFICATION OF ITALY
Ø During 19th century Italy was divided into seven states with under different rulers..
Ø Only Sardinia-Piedmont was ruled by an Italian princely house. The North was under Austrian Habsburgs. The centre was under Pope. The South was under the Bourbon Kings of Spain.
Ø Italian language had varieties of dialects; therefore, it was not stable in its form.
Ø Role of Giuseppe Mazzini
§ Giuseppe Mazzini formed a coherent program for uniting the Italian Republic.
§ He also, formed a secret society called Young Italy.
§ But Failure of the 1831 and 1848 revolutionary uprisings prompted King Victor Emmanuel II from Sardinia-Piedmont to unify the Italian states.
Ø Chief Minister of Sardinia-Piedmont, Count Cavour, led the movement for the unification of Italy.
Ø In 1859 Sardinia-Piedmont with an alliance with France defeated the Austrian forces. Large number of people under the leadership of Giuseppe Garibaldi joined the movement.
Ø In 1860 Sardinia-Piedmont‟s forces marched into south Italy and the Kingdom of the Two Scillies and drove out the Spanish rulers.
Ø Finally in 1861 Victor Emanuel was declared as the king of united Italy and Rome was declared the capital of Italy.
v BRITAIN AS A NATION
Ø Britain was not a nation state prior to 18th century. It was known as English, Welsh, Scot or Irish.
Ø The steady growth of power made the English nation extend its influence over the other nations and islands.
Ø In 1688 English parliament seized power from the monarchy.It was known as bloodless revolution.
Ø In 1707 the United Kingdom of Great Britain formed with the Act of the Union between England and Scotland.
Ø England dominated Scotland and Ireland in all spheres. British Parliament was dominated by English members.
Ø In 1801 Ireland was forcibly taken by the British after the failed revolution led by Wolfe and his United Irishmen (1798).
Ø A new „British Nation‟ was formed with her various symbols such as the British flag (Union Jack), the national anthem (“God Save Our Noble King”) and the English language.
v VISUALISING THE NATION
Ø Nation were personified by a female figer which was known as allegory. Two most famous allegories were in Europe-
Ø France - Marianne
§ In France she was christened Marianne, a popular Christian name, which underlined the idea of a people’s nation.
§ Her characteristics were drawn from those of Liberty and the Republic – the red cap, the tricolor, the cockade.
§ Statues of Marianne were placed in public squares to remind the public of the national symbol of unity and to persuade them to identify with it. Marianne images were marked on coins and stamps.
Ø Germania - Germania
§ Germania became the allegory of the German nation.
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§ In visual representations, Germania wears a crown of oak leaves, as the German oak stands for heroism.
v DIFFERENT SUMBOLS AND SIGNIFICANCE
Symbols
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Significance
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Broken chains
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Liberty
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Breastplate with eagle
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Strength
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Crown of oak leaves
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Heroism
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Sword
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Readiness to fight
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Olive branch around the sword
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Willingness to make peace
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Rays of the rising sun
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Beginning of a new era
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Black, red and gold tricolour
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Flag of the liberal nationalists
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v NATIONALISM AND IMPERIALISM
Ø By the quarter of the nineteenth century nationalism no longer retained its idealistic liberal-democratic sentiment of the first half of the century, but became a narrow creed with limited ends.
Ø It turned into imperialism or to conquer more and more areas to expand their territories.
Ø The most serious source of nationalists tension in Europe after 1871 was the area called the Balkans
§ The Balkans was a region of geographical and ethnic variation comprising modern-day Romania, Bulgaria, Albania, Greece, Macedonia, Croatia etc.
§ It was under the control of ottoman empire but with the disintegration of the Ottoman Empire made this region very explosive
§ One by one its European subjects nationalities broke away from its control and declared independence.
§ The Balkan area became an era of intense conflict.
§ The Balkan states were jealous of each other and each hoped to gain more territory at the expense of each other.
§ At the same time the European power like Russia, Germany, England, Austro-Hungary – were keen to control over the Balkans This led to a series of wars in the region and finally the First World War.
§ So we can say that the problem of Balkans create the situation of world war-1
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